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Guide to Technical Writing

Fall 2018

Material revised and adapted for use as
Supplementary material for

ENGL 1261 – TEWP

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1. INTRODUCTION
Technical writing requires a strong foundation in general writing, including knowledge of common
grammar and punctuation conventions. The process is iterative and involves multiple reviews and
revisions prior to publication. The Chicago Manual of Style is used in this guide because it is the College
of Engineering standard. Be aware that other style manuals are often required as a writing standard.

This writing guide provides a format for writing and revising text and details on how to develop content
that meets professional standards. Prior to submitting work, complete several iterations of editing and
improving the text. Proofread again after several days, or at least hours, after the last examination. Then
request an external reviewer to provide detailed constructive criticism. Consider and incorporate relevant
feedback, then proofread the final document before submitting.

The Biosystems Engineering program provides many opportunities to learn from feedback on written
assignments. By writing and revising, the ability to communicate effectively with both clarity and brevity
will improve. Writing well is hard work but critical to academic and professional success.

2. TECHNICAL WRITING
Technical writing is direct, informative, clear, and concise language written specifically for an identified
audience. The content must be accurate and complete with no exaggerations. To deliver the intended
message, the text must be objective and persuasive without being argumentative. Developing technical
documents that meet these requirements and standard guidelines is time consuming. This section
provides an overview of those standards and a process for create interesting, informative text.

Before composing the text, identify the audience, determine the message, collect adequate information,
brainstorm, and then develop a detailed outline. Details of each process are provided below.

1. Identify the audience by answering the following questions:

Who is the intended audience (one or multiple)?
What subject knowledge, vocabulary, and biases will the intended audience have?
How will the report be used?
What information must be conveyed and how much detail will be expected?

2. Determine the purpose of the report by evaluating the intended message. A clear message will
help focus on what to include and what to discard.

3. Collect adequate relevant information with sufficient depth for the intended audience before
starting to write.

4. Brainstorm by listing relevant ideas. Then group related thoughts together. Organize the key
points and supporting details in a logical order. Ensure that each section relates to and supports
the message, eliminating irrelevant ideas.

5. Develop an outline of heading and subheadings that convey key points; for example, use Analytic
Results of Energy Production in place of Results. Then assign a length to each topic.

Next, develop figures and tables. Then begin writing, remembering to maintain consistency and use
appropriate language. Create interesting text by developing coherent paragraphs that incorporate
transitional words and sentence variety. Use correct grammar and punctuation.

A Technical Report Checklist is provided in Appendix A to assist with finalizing a document, and
additional Style Guide Resources are provided in Appendix B.

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2.1. PRODUCE FIGURES AND TABLES
Figures and tables enhance the report and explain the intended message. Distinguish between figures
(schematic drawings, photographs, charts, graphs, etc.) and tables (tabular compilations of data or
computational results). Follow these guidelines to assist the reader with understanding key points.

1. Make figures large enough to be easily read, generally at least one-third of a page in size. When
feasible, maintain a consistent figure size throughout a report.

2. Select distinguishable line types and symbols, shades with patterns, and contrasting colors rather
than color alone to maintain legibility in both color and black and white. Also use contrasting
lettering (for example, white letters on darker images) to identify landmarks on photographs.
This enables printing or copying in black and white, which is more common due to the expense
of color.

3. Include a key if there are two or more lines, and use distinguishable symbol shapes and line types.
Label both axes and include dimensions.

4. Use a photograph when an illustration is not adequate. When taking photographs, step back and
think about the purpose of the photograph, take time to look at the composition and remove
objects that pose a distraction. Make sure there is a strong contrast between objects. Take
multiple photographs including close-up views to ensure that the object is large enough to be
effective as an illustration. Use a flash or portrait setting to illuminate the target image, even in
the daytime.

5. Provide a short descriptive title that provides content clarity so the figure or table will stand alone
if removed from the report (e.g., Figure 1. Schematic of the water treatment process).

6. When a landmark, road name, or other information is referenced in the text, this information must
be provided on the figure (e.g., Shaw Hall, Snow Road).

7. Horizontally center, within the report margins, figures and tables and the corresponding titles.
Place figure titles below the figure and table titles above the table. Use portrait orientation
whenever feasible. If landscape orientation is used, orient the base of the figure or table towards
the right-hand side of the page and center within the report margins.

8. Refer to every figure and table in the text and number in the order referenced. Place the figure or
table immediately following the text or paragraph that includes the reference. If this is not
practical, place the figure or table on the next page. When the report has section numbers or
appendices, include the section or appendix number within the figure and table number
(e.g., Figure 4.3 is the third figure in Section 4, Table 5.1 is the first table in Section 5, and Figure
A-1 is the first figure in Appendix A).

9. The title is part of the figure or table and requires a unique format. Use a bold font, sized 2 points
smaller than the text, and format it as a “caption” style in Word.

10. Two-dimensional graphs and charts convey information more clearly than in three dimensions.
Therefore, critically evaluate whether a three dimensional presentation of the information is
necessary to convey the message.

11. Round values as needed for comprehension using Microsoft formatting options (Appendix C),
and use the correct number of significant figures (Appendix D).

12. Use tables if there will be more than three to four entries.

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For assistance with techniques for effective presentation of figures and tables, investigate the following
resources available in the Biosystems Engineering Career Center:

Nicol, Adelheid A. M. and Penny M. Pexman. 2003. Displaying Your Findings: A Practical Guide
for Creating Figures, Posters, and Presentations. Washington DC: American Psychological
Association.

Davis, Martha. 2002. Scientific Papers and Presentations. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

2.2. MAINTAIN CONSISTENCY
Clearly convey technical information by formatting the document consistently. Correctly and uniformly
spell, capitalize, abbreviate, hyphenate, bold, and italicize text. Use correct grammar, punctuation, and
spelling. Precede a number with a value less than one with a zero (e.g., 0.5), and use the correct number
of significant figures (Appendix D).

To simplify the task of formatting uniformly, use Microsoft Word tools (highlighted in Appendix C) and
follow these guidelines.

1. Use Times Roman typeface for easier reading. Apply Helvetica typeface, such as Arial, for
viewing at a distance, although Arial’s capital “i” is not different from the lower case “l” as in
low.

2. Maintain a 2-point font size difference between subheading and main headings and use 11 or 12-
point for the text. (This writing guide uses bold 18-point for the main headings, bold 16 and 14-
point for the subheadings, and 11-point for the text.)

3. Reserve underlining for hyperlinks.

4. Provide 1-inch top, bottom, and side margins and adequate and consistent white space to separate
information and make the document visually appealing.

5. Supply uniform spacing before and after headings and paragraphs. Left justify all paragraphs and
use 1.5 line spacing except for itemized lists, which can be single spaced. Use two spaces
between sentences.

6. Start a main heading on a new page, unless two main topics fit on one page or a section is less
than half a page. Provide appropriate page breaks, making sure that content flows from one page
to the next. Keep the introductory information on the same page as the list.

7. Keep numbers and salutations on the same text line with dimensions and names; examples
include dimensioned numeric value (5 feet), numbered titles (Figure 12), and a salutation with
name (Mr. Smith). (In Microsoft Word hold down SHIFT-CTRL while adding a space or hyphen
to keep the text together)

8. When it is necessary to break a URL (uniform resource locator) or e-mail address, place a break
(not a hyphen) between elements, after a slash, equal sign, colon, or the symbol @, but before any
other punctuation or symbols. When an address includes a hyphen, avoid breaking at the hyphen
to avoid confusion. (In Microsoft Word add a break using SHIFT-ENTER to keep the URL as
one continuous element.)

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2.3. USE APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE
Technical reports use formal English, direct language, and simple terms. Make sure to select the correct
term; review the list of commonly misused words in Appendix E. Employ correct scientific terms and
conventions for engineers. Replace words that are a problem for the foreign reader, such as the verb “do”
and words with multiple meanings (feel, do, as, like).

2.3.1. Formal English
Formal English is explicit even for the foreign reader who uses English as a second language. This
requires elimination of contractions (I’m, don’t) and personal pronouns, which include: first person (e.g.,
I, we, our, us): second person (you, your, yours); and third person (he, her, it, theirs). Technical text is
also void of colloquialisms, jargon, clichés, and sexist language − each of which is defined in detail
below.

Colloquialisms (local or regional expressions) are characteristic of ordinary spoken or written
communication that imitates informal speech, which may not carry the expected meaning. Examples
include “gonna” for “going to” and “passed on” for “died.”

Jargon, or slang, is terminology that is used by a particular group of people in a specialized field; it may
not be understandable by any other group or individual. If jargon is used, define or explain the meaning.
For example, a “hydrostat transmission” is jargon for a “variable pump hydraulic transmission with
infinite speed variability.” Examples of slang include “hang on” for “wait” and “run” for “computer
simulation.”

Clichés, when first created, were vivid descriptions of something that was current in the minds of the
people. As time passed, the descriptions lost their original meaning, and no longer represent descriptive
text (e.g., avoid like the plague; a can of worms; in the long run; and by the same token). Technical
writing must also be void of recent and current clichés.

Sexist language is inappropriately gender specific. To prevent bias, eliminate gender specific words to
describe a category of people who could be either male or female. Do not use adaptations, such as he/she,
because they hinder the text flow. As alternatives, use plurals, change words, or simply say he and she,
his or her, him and her.

2.3.2. Direct Language
In technical writing, every word must have a place in the sentence and a meaning. Use direct statements
and an active voice, avoiding past tense as much as possible, except in the executive summary, where past
tense is always used. Use future tense to project into the future

Avoid saying the same thing twice and repeating the same word in a sentence. When a sentence contains
the same word twice, try rewriting the sentence. Reword negative language to the positive.

Provide certainty by eliminating auxiliaries such as would, should, could, may, and might. Avoid
ambiguous words and phrases by selecting a clearer alternative. Replace wordy text (despite the fact that)
with a concise alternative (because). Additional examples of concise alternatives are provided in
Appendix F.

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2.3.3. Simple Terms
Impress the audience with analysis, not vocabulary. Replace complex words with simple language if it
conveys the same meaning. This prevents the audience from interpreting the text, allowing the author to
maintain control by forcing the reader to understand the intended meaning. Replacing the word “utilize”
with “use” or “altercation” with “dispute” simplifies the text.

2.3.4. Action Verbs

2.4. CREATE TEXT FLOW
Select an appropriate style and tone, and then simply write down ideas and facts without concern for
quality or format under each heading and subheading. Then edit, wait, and edit again, eliminating
irrelevant information, emotion, unsupported opinions, and judgments.

Organize the ideas into smooth flowing text by developing coherent paragraphs, using transitional words,
and incorporating sentence variety. Be selective in the use of acronyms and initialisms. Use numbers or
bullets to convey lists of information.

2.4.1. Coherent Paragraphs
Create paragraphs with a single topic or focus, and include supporting details. Each paragraph usually
contains around five sentences (although this is not a rule). To improve comprehension, place the key
topic at the beginning of a sentence and new information at the end.

All of the ideas contained within a paragraph must relate to one central thought. Arrange factual
sentences in a logical order from general to specific. If there are ideas that relate to other foci, construct
additional paragraphs.

In order to build the individual paragraphs into a complete paper, take ideas from the beginning paragraph
and expand each into subsequent paragraphs. Link paragraphs together by stating what will appear in the
next paragraph.

2.4.2. Transitional Words
Use transitional words to connect one idea to the next, one sentence to another, one paragraph to another.
Forms of transitional words include: indicators for time order (earlier, later); position in time (rarely);
sequence (next); occurrences that happen again (to explain); conclusions (in conclusion); the end of an
idea (finally); compare/contrast (also/but); causality (because, as a result, therefore); spatial concerns
(neighboring); and other connectors (or, nor, but, subsequently, then, besides, furthermore, similarly,
likewise, moreover, in which, nevertheless).

Develop precise and interesting text. Replace verb-preposition combinations with high quality action
verbs (go with → accompany, find out → discover, start out → begin).

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2.4.3. Sentence Variety
Develop clear concise text by writing shorter sentences that are appropriate for the intended audience,
avoiding very short sentences. Use a long sentence only when it consists of more than one clause and
both the meaning and logical relationships between the clauses are clear. Avoid using phrases with more
than three nouns in a row by dividing the phrase into a shorter noun phrase with a relative clause or
prepositional phrase, or use hyphens to connect closely related words in the noun string. Compare the
first example, which has six nouns in a row, with the rewritten sentence that follows:

The nanotechnology enhanced iron foam column contactor removes phosphorus …

The column contactor uses nanotechnology-enhanced iron foam to remove phosphorus …

For clear text that is understandable for non-native English-speaking readers, use simplified verb phrases
and tenses. The sentence:

Fabricated steel components should not be welded by beginning students.

Could be written as

Beginning students should not weld fabricated steel components. (Simplified)

Locate previously introduced information in the topic (subject) position of the next sentence to assist with
comprehension.

Bob called the dog. The dog stopped immediately.

When using prepositional phrases, make sure it is obvious what each preposition is modifying.

The news report stimulated conversation, but this did not resolve the problem.
(Does this refer to the news report or the conversation?)

Avoid ending a sentence in a preposition by selecting a more descriptive action verb.

The burglar finally gave up. The burglar finally surrendered.

To create smooth flowing text and interesting reading, vary the length and beginning of the sentences,
arrangement of information, and kinds of sentences. Eliminate repeated words in a single sentence. Use
the following diverse sentence structures to provide variety.

Simple sentence: Includes subject-verb-object, in that order.

The laboratory report summarized the results.

Compound sentence: A subordinate clause appears before the main clause.

If you find the answer, it will relieve everyone in the class.

Complex sentence: Consists of an independent clause followed by an independent clause

The final reports were due yesterday, and no one knew who had the original.

Compound/complex sentence: An independent clause is preceded or followed by a subordinate clause
and then a second independent clause.

If you find the answer, it will relieve everyone in the class; admiration from all is a
nice reward.

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2.4.4. Acronyms and Initialisms
Both acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations formed using the first letter of a series of words.
Acronyms are pronounced as a word, whereas initialisms are pronounced as a series of letters (IBM).

Sometimes an acronym or initialism is more commonly used than the words themselves. For example,
random access memory is known by its acronym, RAM and the International Business Machines
Corporation as IBM. Some acronyms, like “scuba” (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), have
become so accepted that their original derivations have been lost and the acronyms have been added as
new words to the English language.

Using uncommon acronyms and initialisms makes reading harder for all but a few specialists; therefore,
be selective and limit their use. When using either, write the full name or phrase followed by the
acronym or initialism in parentheses for the first appearance. However, do not follow this procedure if
the acronym is not used again.

An acronym or initialism followed by a simple s is the plural form. Whereas an acronym with an ’s
shows the possesive form.

2.5. USE CORRECT GRAMMAR

2.5.1. Parallel Structure
Parallel structure means using the same form for words that have the same level of importance in a
sentence or for a list of items that are joined by a coordinating conjunction, such as “and” or “or.”

The scientist collected, dried, and weighed the samples.

When preparing bulleted or numbered lists use the same word type (i.e., all nouns, all verbs) and maintain
parallel structure. If the listed items complete the introduction grammatically, place a period at the end of
every line. Capitalize the first word in a bulleted or numbered list.

In preparation for the FE Exam, the students will review the following:
Circuits
Economics
Statics

2.5.2. Subjects and Verbs
It is important for text to flow smoothly. Subject and verb quality and agreement are essential and allow the
reader to move through the text. To ensure the reader understands the intended meaning, abide by the
following subject and verb rules and use the correct verb tense:

1. Subjects and verbs must agree in person and number—singular with singular, plural with plural.

2. A verb must agree with its subject, not with the words that come between the two.

The Club President, along with the officers, is going to the conference.

3. Subjects joined by “and” usually take a plural verb.

Platinum, gold, and lead are available in the laboratory.

4. When subjects are joined by “or” or “nor”, the verb agrees with the subject closest to it.

Cherries or two apple varieties have been used in the study.

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5. When using subordinate clauses with a pronoun as subject, the verb agrees with the antecedent to
which the pronoun refers.

Robert earned excellent grades, because he worked very hard.

6. A verb agrees with the subject, even though in many cases the subject will follow the verb.

Educating the committee is difficult.

7. When using a linking verb (is, are, was, were, forms of be) the subject is the noun that precedes
the verb, not the nouns that follow the verb.

The dogs are running down the street.

8. Select quality verbs that demonstrate an action. A list of action verbs is provided in Appendix G.

take any → accept talk about → discuss went up →rose, increased

leave out → exclude go with → select written up → composed

2.5.3. Active and Passive Voice
Take responsibility by writing in active voice; use passive voice only when it is appropriate for emphasis
or when you lack information. Active voice distinctly identifies the subject and the action taken by the
subject. The passive voice indicates that the subject receives, rather than performs, the action.

The sound’s reverberation struck the walls.

Passive voice changes the position of the previous subject into an indirect object and focuses the sentence
on what receives the action, the walls:

The walls were struck by the sound’s reverberation.

When the active voice is appropriate, use it to create concise, energetic text. Only use the passive voice
when it is appropriate to say that an action is done to the subject.

The final project was finished by the team. (passive)

The team finished the final project. (active)

2.5.4. Cases of Pronouns
1. Nominative Pronouns: Used as a subject in the sentence (I, we, you, he, she, it, who, and they):

Mary and I will attend. The guard who let us in checked our identification.

2. Objective Pronouns: Used as objects of verbs or prepositions (me, us, you, him, whom, and
them):

He questioned Susan and me about the copyright. Whom did you ask?

3. Possessive Pronouns: Used to show possession or ownership (my, mine, our, your, his, her,
theirs, its, whose, etc.):

The Swartz Company may lose its best customer.

For additional examples and explanation, visit the Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) at:

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2.5.5. Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement
1. A pronoun and its antecedent must agree in number. Examine the various constructions of

compound antecedents and the proper protocol in the examples below.

The owner is concerned about sales, but they will rebound.

The President or his advisers should devote part of their time to this issue.

2. A parenthetical expression that appears between an antecedent and a pronoun does not influence
the form of the pronoun used.

The accountant, rather than any of the other officers, will be asked for his or her opinion of
this purchase.

3. If the antecedent is a collective noun that refers to a group as a single unit, a singular pronoun is
needed. Company names are generally considered to be collective nouns.

Stein & Smith has sold its Chicago properties.

4. For clarity, make pronoun usage clear and understandable by avoiding vague references.

I worked hard on the experiment, and it was difficult. Does the writer want us to consider the
experiment as difficult, the work that was done as difficult, or that it was difficult to work hard?

2.5.6. Compound Words
A compound word conveys a unit that is not as clearly conveyed by separate words.

1. Use a hyphen to connect elements of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and in
adjective compounds with a numerical first element. The hyphen not only unites but also
separates the component words.

7-hour day, 3-inch ruler, eighty-five.

2. Use a hyphen after the “e” to designate “electronic”:

e-mail, e-commerce, e-article

3. Omit the hyphen when words appear in regular order and the omission of the hyphen causes no
confusion in sound or meaning.

palm oil, eye opener, living costs

4. Use a hyphen for clarification when four nouns appear in a row.

A sand-filtered purification system. The end-of-year report.

1. Capitalize the name of a particular person, place, or thing, as well as an adjective that refers to a
specific name.

Canada/Canadian, Tibetan Alpacas

2. Capitalize descriptive names that are substituted frequently for the real proper names.

the Windy City, Honest Abe

2.5.7. Capitalisation

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3. Capitalize brand names and trademarked names.

Palmolive soap, Maxwell House coffee

4. Generally capitalize a noun that is followed by a number or letter used to identify a unit or
division.

Lot 14, Tract 833, Volume III, Chapter 8, Policy No. 12345, Catalog No. 214.

5. Capitalize the names of courses of study only if they are derived from proper nouns.

English, shorthand, history, German, Business Mathematics 121

6. Unless a comma intervenes, capitalize titles that precede names; generally, do not capitalize those
that follow names.

I have never met Congressman Nelson.

I have never met our congressman, Tim Nelson.

Professor Swartz did the research.

7. A name that indicates a family relationship is usually capitalized unless a noun or a pronoun in
the possessive case precedes it.

Uncle Ralph, Mother

My aunt Millie, my mother

8. The names for the points of the compass and their derivatives are capitalized when used to name
regions, but not when used to indicate directions.

This sweater was made in the East. Turn west on M-20.

9. Capitalize the name of a season or the word “nature” only if it is spoken of as if it were human.

Old Man Winter left a foot of snow; our spring suits are on sale.

10. All words except articles (a, an, the), conjunctions, and short prepositions are capitalized in
names or titles that consist of more than one word. Do not capitalize “the” if it precedes the name
of an organization but is not actually a part of that organization’s name.

Official Draft of the NBA; the Eastman Kodak Company

11. Do not capitalize classes (freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior), degrees (doctorate, doctor’s,
master’s, bachelor’s, baccalaureate), or seasons (spring, summer, fall, winter), unless they appear
at the beginning of a sentence or in a headline.

12. Readability studies have shown that text is more easily read when in lower case as opposed to all
caps. When too many words are capitalized, they lose their importance. Emphasis is achieved
more effectively by using various font styles and sizes.

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2.5.8. Numbers as Words
1. Generally spell out isolated numbers from one to ten.

The discussion lasted for ten minutes.

2. Unless emphasizing them, spell out indefinite numbers that may be expressed in one or two
words.

Approximately thirty appliances were damaged.

3. Spell out a number that introduces a sentence. If the number is long, recast the sentence to avoid
awkwardness.

Twenty people attended the lecture.

4. Spell out common fractions that are used alone. However, use figures in writing a mixed number.

He refused to accept his one-fourth share.

The hike was 10 ½ miles long.

5. When two numbers come together, express one in figures and the other in words. As a rule, spell
the first number unless the second number is a significantly shorter word; i.e.,

Sixty $5 bills or 500 four-page booklets.

6. When rounding numbers, spell out million or billion to make reading easier.

This tax legislation will increase revenue by $7 million.

2.5.9. Numbers – Text or Digits
1. Generally use numerals to express all exact numbers above ten.

The corporate file has been missing for 31 days.

2. Use the written form of a number for values 10 and below except to express market quotations,
dimensions, temperature, decimals, street numbers, pages and divisions of a book, time, weights
and measures, and identification numbers.

The experiment had three independent variables staged at 5, 10, and 15 degrees Kelvin.

3. If several numbers in a sentence perform similar functions, express them uniformly. If one is
written as a figure, write all as figures.

The inventory shows 21 ranges, 9 refrigerators, 37 washers, and 10 dryers.

The 32 tables sold in five days. (The numbers do not perform similar functions.)

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2.5.10. That and Which
Generally “that” defines and restricts; …