A History of the Modern Middle East

A History of the Modern Middle East
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A History of the Modern Middle East
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A H I S T O R Y O F T H E
Modern Middle East F O U R T H E D I T I O N
William L. Cleveland late of Simon Fraser University
Martin Bunton University of Victoria
A Member of the Perseus Books Group
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Copyright 2009 by Westview Press Published by Westview Press, A Member of the Perseus Books Group
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Designed by Brent Wilcox
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cleveland, William L.
A history of the modern Middle East / William L. Cleveland and Martin Bunton. 4th ed.
p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8133-4374-7 (alk. paper) 1. Middle EastHistory1517 I. Bunton, Martin P. II. Title. DS62.4.C53 2009 956dc21
2008037302
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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C O N T E N T S
List of Illustrations ix
Preface to the Third Edition xiii
Preface to the Fourth Edition xix
A Note About Place Names and Transliteration xxi
P A R T O N E
The Development of Islamic Civilization to the Eighteenth Century 1
1 The Rise and Expansion of Islam 5
2 The Development of Islamic Civilization to the Fifteenth Century 19
3 The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis 37
P A R T T W O
The Beginnings of the Era of Transformation 57
4 Forging a New Synthesis: The Pattern of Reforms, 17891849 61
5 The Ottoman Empire and Egypt During the Era of the Tanzimat 81
6 Egypt and Iran in the Late Nineteenth Century 103
7 The Response of Islamic Society 119
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8 The Era of the Young Turks and the Iranian Constitutionalists 133
9 World War I and the End of the Ottoman Order 149
P A R T T H R E E
The Struggle for Independence: The Interwar Era to the End of World War II 171
10 Authoritarian Reform in Turkey and Iran 175
11 The Arab Struggle for Independence: Egypt, Iraq, and Transjordan from the Interwar Era to 1945 193
12 The Arab Struggle for Independence: Syria, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia from the Interwar Era to 1945 217
13 The Palestine Mandate and the Birth of the State of Israel 239
P A R T F O U R
The Independent Middle East from the End of World War II to the 1970s 273
14 Democracy and Authoritarianism: Turkey and Iran 275
15 The Middle East in the Age of Nasser: The Egyptian Base 301
16 The Middle East in the Age of Nasser: The Radicalization of Arab Politics 323
17 Israel and the Palestinians from 1948 to the 1970s 345
P A R T F I V E
A Time of Upheaval and Renewal: The Middle East from the 1970s to the 2000s 369
18 Changing Patterns of War and Peace: Egypt and Lebanon in the 1970s and 1980s 373
vi Contents
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19 The Consolidation of Authoritarian Rule in Syria and Iraq: The Regimes of Hafiz al-Asad and Saddam Husayn 397
20 The Iranian Revolution and the Resurgence of Islam 423
21 The Arabian Peninsula in the Petroleum Era 451
22 Challenges to the Existing Order: The Palestinian Uprising and the 1991 Gulf War 473
23 A Peace so Near, a Peace so Far: Israeli-Palestinian Relations Since the 1991 Gulf War 499
24 Patterns of Continuity and Change Since the 1991 Gulf War 527
25 Americas Troubled Moment in the Middle East 557
Glossary 577
Select Bibliography 583
Index 609
Contents vii
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I L L U S T R A T I O N S
M A P S
2.1 The lands of Islam at the beginning of the ninth century 22
3.1 The Ottoman Empire in the late seventeenth century 43
4.1 Egyptian expansion under Muhammad Ali and his successors 72
9.1 The Ottoman Empire in 1914 159 9.2 The division of the former Ottoman territories under the
Treaty of Svres, 1920 165 9.3 The Middle East in the interwar period 168
11.1 The distribution of major ethnic and religious groups within Iraq 206
12.1 The creation of Greater Lebanon under the French mandate in the 1920s 220
12.2 The division of Syria under the French mandate, 19201923 221
13.1 The boundaries of the Palestine mandate, 19231948 246 13.2 The UN proposal for the partition of Palestine, 1947 265 13.3 The Arab-Israeli armistice lines, 1949 269
16.1 Isreal and the territories occupied in the June 1967 war 340
17.1 Israeli settlements on the West Bank, 19671987 365
19.1 Iraq and Iran in the 1980s 417
21.1 Arabia and the Persian Gulf in the mid-1970s 454
23.1 Checkpoints and barriers in the West Bank, December 2007 521
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25.1 Kurdish homelands 571
P H O T O S
Muhammad Ali 67
The port of Alexandria 98
The Ottoman army in 1917 155
Jamal Pasha, one of the CUP ruling triumvirs, and members of his staff, Damascus, 1915 156
Sharif Husayn ibn Ali, the amir of Mecca, proclaimed the Arab Revolt in 1916 158
The army of the Arab Revolt, composed mainly of irregular tribal forces, at Wejh, Arabia, 1917 162
Amir Faysal, field commander of the Arab Revolt and later king of Syria, at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 166
Mustafa Kemal Atatrk, president of Turkey, circa 1930 180
Sa d Zaghlul, leader of the Wafd Party and the Egyptian independence
movement after World War I 195
The coronation of Amir Faysal as king of Iraq in 1921 210
A street scene in Damascus, October 2, 1918 219
David Ben-Gurion announcing the independence of the state of Israel, May 14, 1948 267
Muhammad Reza Shah and Empress Farah at the tomb of Cyrus the Great 298
The military enters politics: A group of Egyptian Free Officers in early 1953 305
Nassers triumphant return to Cairo from Alexandria on July 28, 1956, after announcing the nationalization of the Suez Canal 311
Scene at the Khan Yunis Palestinian refugee camp in the Gaza Strip, 1949 357
Yasir Arafat in 1971 360
President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and his wife, Jehan, December 15, 1970 381
x Illustrations
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The unveiling of a monumental portrait of President Saddam Husayn of Iraq during ceremonies in 1990 to celebrate his fifty-third birthday 421
Representatives of three disparate and ultimately conflicting visions of the Iranian revolution 439
TA B L E S
13.1 Population of Palestine by Ethnic Group, 19311946 255
Illustrations xi
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P R E F A C E T O
T H E T H I R D E D I T I O N
This book is intended to introduce Middle Eastern history to students and gen- eral readers who have not previously studied the subject. In the pages that fol- low, the term Middle East refers to the region from Egypt in the west through Iran in the east, and from Turkey in the north to the Arabian Peninsula in the south. I am aware that sound arguments exist for extending the geographical coverage to include Arab North Africa, the Sudan, and Islamic Afghanistan. However, for purposes of coherence and manageability, I concentrate on the central Middle East and therefore have eliminated from this edition the section on the independent Islamic republics of Central Asia. The primary chronologi- cal focus of the book is from the late eighteenth to the early twenty-first cen- turies. Most of the chapters in Part Five have been revised, reorganized, and up- dated. Thus, Chapter 23 introduces the second intifada and attempts to place it in both its local and regional contexts, and Chapter 24 examines the impact of the election of an Islamist-oriented majority government in Turkey in 2002 as well as the significance of the clash between Iranian President Khatamis efforts to introduce reforms and the established ulamas ability to maintain the status quo. And finally, although this book is an examination of the past, not of the present or the future, the dramatic events of September 11, 2001, and the US military actions in Afghanistan and Iraq to which those events gave rise war- ranted, in my opinion, some analysis, however tentative and incomplete. This I have provided in an Epilogue.
Although I have revised several sections in this new edition to achieve greater clarity or to reflect new interpretations, the work retains the basic format of the second edition. Part One offers a general survey of the patterns of Middle East- ern history from the rise of Islam to the eighteenth century. Chapters 1 and 2, which are much reduced in length from the last edition, present the main fea- tures of Islamic faith and ritual and examine the emergence of Islamic social and
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political institutions from the time of the Prophet Muhammad to the end of the Mongol invasions of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In trying to por- tray Islam on its own terms and in its proper historical setting, I have suggested the importance of the interaction between the Islam of the Quranic revelations and the settled civilizations of the Near East. I have also stressed the global as- pects of Islamic civilization and have tried to demonstrate that the dynamic of that civilization cannot be understood by focusing only on the rise and decline of one Middle Eastern Islamic empire but must be seen as a global pattern of several different centers of Islamic florescence, each true to the essentials of the Quranic revelations yet also anchored in economically and culturally unique set- tings. Chapter 3 examines the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the formation of Ottoman ruling institutions and discusses the rise and fall of the Iranian-based Safavid Empire. The Ottoman sections of this chapter incorporate new material from the rich historiography on Ottoman institutions.
In Part Two the focus is on three main centers of political authoritythe Ot- toman Empire, the autonomous province of Egypt, and the Qajar Empire of Iranfrom the early nineteenth century to the peace settlements of 19191920. The patterns of transformation in Iran were different from those in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, and I have attempted to identify and explain the differences and to show their significance for the development of modern Iran. I have ap- proached the modern history of the Ottoman-Egyptian Middle East with the be- lief that the area was organized by a long-established system based on Ottoman- Islamic practices and values. The Ottoman system had never been either static or uniform throughout the region, and it was again in flux on the eve of its nineteenth- and twentieth-century transformation. Nevertheless, after 300 years, the general objectives and practices of Ottoman rule were understood and their application was predictable to the inhabitants of the various regions of the empire.
One prominent theme of the book is that the disruption and eventual de- struction of established Ottoman-Islamic ruling practices and social relation- ships during and after the reforming era was a wrenching and disorienting ex- perience for the peoples of the Middle East. The terminology of this process of change has often been presented under the headings of modernization or West- ernization. However, those terms have taken on connotations that are either value-laden or culturally judgmental or both. I have therefore avoided them ex- cept in instances where they accurately correspond to the intent of Middle East- ern participants such as Kemal Atatrk, who was, in my opinion, a Westernizer. In place of modernization and Westernization, I prefer the term transformation, which better conveys the objectives of nineteenth-century reformers and also places nineteenth-century changes in the context of earlier eras of Middle East- ern transformation. The nineteenth century was not the first instance of exter- nally inspired transformation in the Islamic Middle East, nor was it the first at-
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tempt at Ottoman reform. The rise and consolidation of the Ottoman Empire in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was itself a transforming process. So, too, was the imposition of Shi
ism in Iran during the same period. I take the view
that nineteenth-century Middle Eastern rulers did not intend to Westernize their states but merely sought to adopt selected European technological im- provements and organizational methods for their armed forces. However, as I try to demonstrate in Part Two, as greater numbers of influential administrators and military officers became committed to selective borrowing from Europe, the transformation was accelerated and spread to spheres outside the purely military.
Chapter 4 is a discussion of the early phase of the transformation as embod- ied in the reform programs of the Ottoman sultans, Selim III and Mahmud II, and Muhammad Ali of Egypt. Chapter 5 examines the acceleration of the transformation during the Ottoman Tanzimat and the reign of Isma
il in
Egypt, showing how the combination of increased expenditures and the loss of local markets to European merchants led to the bankruptcy of the two states and the eventual British occupation of Egypt. It also focuses on educational changes and shows the patterns by which the so-called French knowers came to be favored over the graduates of religious institutions for positions in the bu- reaucracy, the teaching profession, and the judiciary. Chapter 6 explores the impact of the British occupation on Egypt up to the outbreak of World War I and examines Qajar Iran during the reign of Nasir al-Din Shah. By introduc- ing late-nineteenth-century Iran at this point in the book, I hope to enable readers to grasp the differences between the Ottoman-Egyptian experiences al- ready discussed and the circumstances affecting Iran.
Chapter 7 presents the perspective of individuals who opposed the transfor- mation or at least wished it to be more firmly grounded in Islamic practices and principles. The Ottoman ruler Sultan Abdul Hamid II and three rural re- formist movements, the Wahhabi, the Sanusi, and the Mahdiyyah, are repre- sentative of the trend of resistance to European-style reforms that surfaced in the late nineteenth century. I also deal with the ideas of Islamic reform put for- ward by Muhammad Abduh as well as with the more secular Arab awakening sparked by the activities of Christian missionaries and the introduction of the printing press. My discussion in Chapter 8 concentrates on two very different protest movements in favor of constitutional government. The Young Turk rev- olution restored the Ottoman constitution and brought to power a group of military officers and civil servants educated in the new institutions and deter- mined to reform, and thus to save, the Ottoman Empire. In the first section of this chapter I examine their policies and seek to identify the main currents of communal identity that competed for the loyalties of the Ottoman population on the eve of World War I. In the second section I discuss the Iranian consti- tutional upheaval of 19051911 and compare it to the Young Turk era.
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Chapter 9 deals with World War I in the Middle East, the various wartime agreements and treaties regarding the disposition of Ottoman territories, and the final peace settlement that divided the former Ottoman Arab lands be- tween Britain and France. In concluding this chapter, I argue that the passing of the Ottoman Empire and of the organizing principles on which it was based was of seminal importance for the peoples of the Middle East, particularly the inhabitants of the former Arab provinces of the empire. The Arabs had not pre- pared for a post-Ottoman order, and certainly not for one that found them ruled by British and French occupiers. For the quarter century after 1920, the Arab leaders were preoccupied with gaining full independence from the Euro- pean powers and establishing national identities for their new states. (In Part Two, as in other parts of the book, I have not provided separate chapters for diplomatic and domestic affairs, preferring instead to view international rela- tions as an aspect of internal developments.)
Part Three covers the period from the imposition of the mandate system to the creation of Israel in 1948. The thorny question of how to present Middle Eastern history after the Ottoman collapse and the emergence of several new states has received a variety of answers in other books. I have chosen a state ap- proach, but one that I hope is comparative and brings out the characteristics of special chronological eras or periods. In short, I believe that there was an inter- war era that possessed certain common features that distinguish it from pre- ceding and succeeding periods. For example, I have emphasized the importance of the Ottoman background to this period in Turkey and the Arab successor states and have suggested the existence of continuities in the political leadership that set the tone for the relationship between the local elite and the European occupying power. In Chapter 10 I compare the objectives and impact of the re- form programs of Atatrk in Turkey and Reza Shah in Iran. In the treatment of the Arab states, I have tried not only to show the internal continuities and breaks with the late Ottoman era but also to demonstrate that the British and French patterns of administrative control played an important role in shaping the development of the states under their rule. Chapter 11 discusses Egypt, Iraq, and Transjordan, countries in which Britain exercised dominance, and Chapter 12 examines French rule in Syria and Lebanon as well as the special case of the rise of Saudi Arabia. The latter chapter concludes with an analysis of the major political ideologies of the interwar periodregionalism, Pan-Arab nationalism, and the continuing appeal of Islamic solidarity. Chapter 13 deals with the Palestine mandate and the birth of Israel.
Part Four is a study of the Middle East from 1945 to the early 1970s. Chap- ter 14 discusses Turkey to the restoration of civilian government in 1983 and Iran to the eve of revolution in the mid-1970s. In Chapters 15 and 16 I treat the Arab states, and their relations with Israel, during the period I have defined
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as the Nasser era. I have employed this term in the belief that Nasserism exer- cised a major influence on the Arab world, not just by the inspiration it pro- vided during the rule of the Egyptian president but also by the despair it left in the wake of its unexpected collapse in 1967. Chapter 17 examines Israeli polit- ical culture and institutions from 1948 to 1977; it also treats the emergence of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the impact of that organiza- tions search for a regional base of operations up to Black September 1970.
Part Five contains substantial changes and additions to the second edition. In the introduction to this part, however, I have retained the guidelines for under- standing the new historical patterns that have emerged since the early 1970s. Chapter 18, which focuses on Egypt and Lebanon during the 1970s and 1980s, discusses the domestic pressures that influenced President Anwar Sadat of Egypt to launch a war against Israel in 1973 and to sign a peace treaty with that same state in 1979. It also examines the local demographic changes that combined with the activities of Palestinian organizations to plunge Lebanon into a bloody civil war and to prompt Israel to invade the country in 1982. The chapter con- cludes with a section on the early years of Husni Mubaraks rule in Egypt.
Presidents Hafiz al-Asad of Syria and Saddam Husayn of Iraq both dominated their respective countries for nearly three decades. Chapter 19 examines their rise to power, their domestic and foreign policies, and the transformation in the so- cial composition of the ruling elite that their rule represented and encouraged. The chapter closes with a discussion of the Iran-Iraq War of 19801988. Chap- ter 20 is divided into two parts: The first analyzes the Iranian revolution of 1979, discusses the significance of the creation of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and in- troduces expanded treatment of the impact of Islamist legislation on the status of women; the second examines the resurgence of politicized Islam as a general Middle Eastern phenomenon, with a special case study of Egypt. The focus in Chapter 21 is on Saudi Arabia and Yemen from the early 1950s to the 1980s and on the oil-producing Arab states of the Persian Gulf from their formation to the 1980s. It stresses the effects of the oil price revolution of 1973 and discusses the tensions caused by the ruling families deployment of vast wealth to create social and technological change as well as to prevent political change.
Chapter 22 examines the Palestinian uprising known as the intifada and the origins and outcome of the Gulf War of 1991. The chapter concludes with a dis- cussion of the impact of the prolonged aftermath of the war on Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen, and Iraq up to the turn of the twenty-first century. Chapter 23 is devoted to an analysis of the rise and fall of the Oslo peace process, the social and political consequences of Yasir Arafats presidency of the Palestinian Author- ity (PA), and the rise and fall of the Netanyahu and Barak governments in Israel. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the outbreak of the second intifada and the election of Ariel Sharon as prime minister of Israel in 2001. Chapter 24
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opens with an analysis of US Middle Eastern policies during the Clinton years and provides both a comparative discussion of Turkey and Iran up to the early 2000s and a section on Egypt as an exemplar of the continuing vitality of politi- cal Islam. As noted above, I have included an Epilogue on the events of Septem- ber 11, 2001, in which I also analyze the immediate significance of the US inva- sion and occupation of Iraq in 2003.
The focus of this book is primarily political, but I have tried to weave into the narrative discussions of major social, economic, and ideological currents in the hope that a full and integrated history of the Middle East will emerge. Of course, a single book cannot cover everything (and should not try to do so). In recognition of this fact, I have provided an annotated and updated bibliogra- phy that offers guidance to readers seeking more in-depth information on the topics dealt with in this book as well as on other aspects of the Middle Eastern past that are not treated here.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance I have received from others. My greatest debt is to the many scholars of the Middle East whose works have guided and informed me throughout the preparation of this book. In the course of attempting to broaden my own knowledge of the field, I have gained a greater awareness of their contributions and a new respect for their achieve- ments. I hope I have appropriately recognized my debt in the notes and the bibliography. Family members, colleagues, and friends outside the academy of- fered encouragement when it was most needed, and I am grateful to them all especially my wife, Gretchen.
Throughout the preparation of the book, from the first proposal sent to the publisher to this third edition, I have benefited from the assistance of what I have come to regard as my Mamluk cohort group. Professors Donald Malcolm Reid, F. Robert Hunter, and James P. Jankowski have provided detailed critical commen- taries, suggestions for revision, and consistent encouragement over a period of time that now exceeds a decade. It is with the deepest gratitude that I acknowledge the time and effort they have devoted to improving this work. I have also benefited from the judicious advice of L. Carl Brown, the astute observations of Jane Power, and the efforts of research assistant Lauren Faulkner. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the skills of Eric Leinberger, the cartographer for all three editions.
The questions raised and the suggestions made by my undergraduate stu- dents over the years have influenced the organization and presentation of the book. I hope the end result answers most of their questions and incorporates the best of their suggestions. If it succeeds in making modern Middle Eastern history more comprehensible without reducing complexities to simplicities, it will have served its purpose.
William L. Cleveland
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P R E F A C E T O
T H E F O U R T H E D I T I O N
Bill Cleveland passed away on September 28, 2006, following years of struggle with leukemia and related complications. Just weeks earlier, Bill had officially re- tired from the Department of History at Simon Fraser University, where his skill and dedication in the classroom were widely acclaimed. The distillation of more than thirty years of passionate teaching and meticulous scholarship, the first three editions of this textbook greatly expanded his reputation for engaging and respecting undergraduate students and for making modern Middle Eastern his- tory more comprehensible without reducing complexities to simplicities.
The first edition of Bills textbook was published in 1994 and concluded with an initial assessment of the significance of the 1991 Gulf War as a major turning point in the modern history of the region. The textbook was revised for republication in 2000 and in 2004, the second edition able to observe more clearly the patterns of continuity and change that had unfolded since the Gulf War and the third edition adding an epilogue offering some reflection on the far-reaching developments of the first years of the twenty-first century (in par- ticular, the attack on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center and the US in- vasion of Iraq). As Bill acknowledged (a little reluctantly), while the majority of instructors who have adopted this book use it primarily as the history text it is intended to be, the unfolding of current events in the Middle East have too great an impact not to be recorded and placed in the context of recent history.
The publication of this fourth edition in 2008 allows again for a consideration of momentous unfolding events that carry the potential to redirect established historical patterns. The main subjects updated in the last three chapters of this book are the continued unraveling of the Oslo peace process; the development of Islamist movements and institutions in Turkey, Iran, Egypt, and Lebanon; and the intensification under President George W. Bushs administration of American diplomatic and military unilateralism in the region. Unfortunately, although Bill
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had talked about the need to rebuild the last part of the third edition, we never had the opportunity before his health took a sudden turn for the worse in September 2006 to discuss in any detail how this might be done. Fortunately, Bills text is very clear (and rather prescient) about what he saw as the main trends; I have been able to maintain many headings, while elaborating on some sections and moving others (including all of the Epilogue) into the new and up- dated chapters.
Throughout the preparation of these updates, I have benefited greatly from the support and help of a number of friends and colleagues. I owe a particular debt to Gregory Blue for his close and critical reading of early drafts to Jane Power, Gus Thaiss, and Michael Thornhill for their thoughtful advice and blunt comments. I would also like to give special thanks to professors Donald Reid and James P. Jankowski, two close friends of Bill Clevelands who were present at the beginning of this textbook and whose observations have greatly strength- ened this edition. It is a pleasure to take the opportunity here to acknowledge my debt to the remarkable teachers and colleagues whom I have come to know over the last two decades and whose works and methods have in many ways guided me throughout the preparation of this edition: Greg Blue, Ralph Croizier, Michael Gilsenan, Robert Jackson, Hanna Kassis, Roger Owen, Eu- gene Rogan, Ted Wooley, and, of course, Bill Cleveland. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the skills of Ole Heggen, who drew the new maps for the last two chapters. None of these