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Short Notes on the Elements of Fiction
(the building blocks of all types of fiction)
1 Plot
plot = “the organization of incidents in a narrative. . . .The governing word in this definition is
organization” (Beckson & Ganz 203)
Elements of plot structure/organization:
exposition, or introductory information
complication(s), series of events caused by the central conflict
climax, the moment of crisis in the story–point of no return
denouement/resolution, the untangling of the complications
foreshadowing, clues of events to follow
flashback, shift back to the past
juxtaposition
The most important key aspect of plot, however, is conflict whether it be an actual physical battle
between good and evil, or inner psychological turmoil.
A mere string of events does not constitute a plot, that is simply a narrative sequence. (See the
definition of narration in any writer’s handbook.)
The king died and the queen died. Simple narrative sequence.
The king died and the queen died of grief. A plot.
Plots may be comic – move from disorder to order – the resolution of the conflict affirms that
the world we live in is orderly, and the roles we play in it effectual and meaningful
Plots may be tragic – move from order to disorder – the resolution of the conflict suggests that
the world we live in is chaotic, hostile and the roles we play in it meaningless, or ineffectual
2 Characterization
characterization = the technique(s) used to create a character.
Texts can TELL us about characters (intervene to describe & evaluate characters) or
SHOW us characters (present dialogue & action without overt judgement).
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Texts can TYPIFY OR INDIVIDUALIZE
‘Flat’ characters: representative, generic,
static (incapable of growth & change)
‘Round’ characters: unique, distinctive,
capable of growth and change
Few characteristics (often physical) Many characteristics (physical & emotional)
Representative (stock) Individual
Stereotype (reflects shallow prejudices–facile
judgement ) or archetype (full of symbolic
resonance)
Unique: depiction of human being as a social
being with a distinct personality (social &
psychological depth)
We come to understand a character through the following:
what the text tells us (physical descriptions, moral judgements, etc)
what the character does (plot)
what the character says & thinks (dialogue)
what other characters say about him/her (dialogue)
Important categories of character:
hero or protagonist
villain or antagonist
heroine
3 Setting
setting = the natural and artificial scenery or environment in which the characters in literature
live and move, together with the things they use. It establishes the time, place & social reality
within which the story takes place.
Setting = all physical and temporal objects and artifacts found in the story:
times of day
weather
hills & valleys
trees & animals
sounds outside & in
smells
walking sticks, necklaces, clothing
Types of setting
natural: nature as a shaping force in the characters’ lives , e.g., a moral testing
ground
manufactured: manufactured things reveal the personalities of makers and
buyers/owners
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Uses of setting
credibility of detail – verisimilitude
metaphor and symbolism
provides context for characters’ behaviour – motivation & choices
4 Point of View
Point of view = the perspective from which details in narrative are perceived and related
to the us–the voice, speaker, centralizing intelligence, narrative personality.
Synonyms: viewpoint, perspective, angle of vision, mask, centre of attention, focus.
(NB: Do not confuse this term with ‘point of view’ meaning “opinion.”)
4.1 First person point of view
perspective = I (rarely we)
always consider what the writer tells us/implies about the speaker(s)’
social & educational background
age and gender
bias
speaker(s) may be
• a major participant in the story
• a minor participant
• reporting a story (hearsay)
speaker(s) may be given
complete understanding
partial or incorrect understanding (the fallible or unreliable narrator)
no understanding at all
4.2 Third person point of view
Perspective = he, she, it, they
4.2.1 Third person omniscient point of view
Techniques: writer creates an intrusive narrator who knows all about the characters and
tells us what to think of them. All narrator’s reports and comments are taken as
authoritative. (NB NO USE OF ‘I,’ ‘ME,’etc.)
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4.2.2 Limited omniscient point of view
Techniques: focuses on thoughts, feelings and actions of a very limited number of
characters, usually just one.
4.3 Dramatic point of view
Techniques: resembles a tracking cine camera or video, reporting actions and
conversations (not thoughts). Shows us the characters, does not tell us what to make of
them.
5 Tone
Tone = techniques and methods of presentation that reveal or create attitudes (e.g., joy, rage,
sadness), not the attitudes themselves. An analysis of tone should focus on (1) how the text
establishes a given effect, not the effect itself, (2) the ways in which tone shapes or influences the
meaning (themes) of the work. For example, irony may be used to call attention to, even criticize,
individual, social, political flaws.
VAST range of tones: admiring–strident–forceful–ironic–bitter–jubilant–violent–serious–
comic
5.1 Laughter, comedy, farce
Methods/techniques:
creating an object of laughter, e.g., person, place, thing, situation, custom, habit
of speech, arrangement of words, e.g., Mr. Bean
blending incongruous elements, e.g., Americans bringing skis to the Chateau
Laurier in July
suspending natural consequences in favour of safety and/or goodwill, e.g., the
indestructible coyote in the Road Runner cartoons.
5.2 Irony
Irony = “a device by which an author expresses a meaning contradictory to the stated or
ostensible [apparent] one” (Beckson & Ganz 132)
Irony involves a discrepancy between appearance (“stated or ostensible meaning”) and
reality (‘true’ meaning); forces us to read between the lines, to question who is blind to
the contradiction and who sees it.
Sarcasm = the crudest form of irony = “bitter, derisive expression. . .whereby what is
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stated is the opposite of what is stated” (Beckson & Ganz 247). (Does not require any real
reading between the lines–frequently referred to as the ‘lowest form of wit.’)
5.2.1 Verbal irony
Manipulation of language so that the writing initially appears to mean one thing but
actually means another (demands a very sophisticated reader who understands that what
the writer is ‘pretending’ to say is not actually what is being said). Speaker/authorial
voice and reader share the ‘joke.’
Possible techniques:
understatement
overstatement
double entendre
Example: “It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a
good fortune must be in want of a wife” (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice).
5.2.2 Situational irony
Invokes the idea of forces (psychological, social, political, or environmental) that
transcend and overpower human capacities
5.2.2.1 Cosmic irony
God(s) manipulate(s) the fates of the characters
5.2.3 Structural irony
Complete work is ironic; meaning is double from beginning to end.
5.2.4 Dramatic irony
Technique: juxtaposition of two perspectives. Character(s) perceive events in a limited
way– but the text strongly implies the bigger picture.
6. Imagery, Figurative Language
6.1 Imagery
Concrete and specific words have the power to create pictures in the mind’s eye; they also
have the ability to conjure up smells, tastes, sounds, even tactile sensations. Writers are
therefore able to capture in language written descriptions of literal sensory experiences
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familiar to us all – images. Precisely because images are so immediately accessible to us,
human beings have long since used them as analogies, i.e., used them figuratively, rather
than literally.
Example: “How did you do in the exam?” “It was a train smash.”
In the example, the image of a commonplace literal disaster, involving extensive
physical damage and suffering, is used figuratively to convey a personal “disaster.”
If the analogy is implied, as in the example, the image is used as a metaphor. If the
analogy is explicitly stated, usually by using “like” or “as” the image is used as a simile.
Example: “How was the exam?” “Dreadful. The questions were as clear as mud.”
As the example above indicates, similes may be original or much-used (cliched?) Much-
used similes are often idiomatic,
Example: “How was the exam?” “Great! I am feeling happy as a clam about it.”
6.2 Symbolism
Similes are the most overt form of figurative language, and therefore usually require less
thoughtful analysis than other types of figurative language. Those which are idiomatic in
particular should probably be taken at face value. It is possible, but highly unlikely, that
deep meaning has been buried in expressions such as “happy as a clam.”
Metaphors, unlike similes, often lurk unseen in literature and usually require a fair
amount of thoughtful analysis. Unpacking the implications of the implied comparison
(analogy) embedded in a metaphor can be important in reading between the lines to
discover and make sense of themes.
The most thought-provoking and challenging form of figurative language, however, is the
symbol.
A symbol = an object, action, or situation which stands for some
experience/belief/emotion so complex that it would be difficult to express directly.
A symbol = any of the following:
a single word
action(s)
setting
character
situation
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but it is always concrete (something we can conjure up a sensory impression of, e.g., a
mental picture), representative, and highly connotative (has many connotations).
The more ideas/meanings a given word or object in a story evokes, the more likely it is a
symbol.
Most cultures develop their own vocabulary of symbols. In Western literature much is use
is made of symbols drawn from Judaism and Christianity (Judaeo-Christian symbols).
Writers assume that readers will be familiar with and therefore understand the
significance of symbols such as the dove, the cross, the number 3, etc.
Analysing symbolism is frequently an essential – and challenging – part of reading
between the lines in fiction.
7. Style and diction
Style consists of selecting the right words and placing them in the right order — easier said than
done. Choice of words is known as diction. Appropriate use of diction involves understanding
not just the ‘denotation,’ or literal meaning of a word, but also the ‘connotations,’ or subjective
associations a word has gathered through use.
• Denotation = what a word means.
• Connotation = what a word suggests.
8. Theme
Theme = both thematic concept and thematic statement
• thematic concept = subject (topic) covered by a work
• thematic statement = the central idea or thesis explored by a work (Beckson &
Ganz 281).
The term “theme” therefore requires reaching an informed opinion about what precisely the text
has to say (thematic statement) about a subject/topic (thematic concept) – simple identification
of the topic is not enough.
Important: all other elements of fiction – plot, characterization, setting, figures of speech
develop, shape and communicate the themes(s) in any given work.
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Reading between the lines for meaning is reading to find and understand thematic concepts and
statements
Many works (arguably most works) contain more than one thematic concept and thematic
statement.
Finally
Plot, characterization, setting, etc. can be considered the basic building blocks of fiction, but
there are many types of fiction: novels, novellas, short stories, ghost stories, fantastic stories,
science fiction, horror fiction, and so on.
When reading between the lines for implied meaning, each type of fiction requires to be
approached on its own terms. No type of fiction can simply be taken at face value, and read for
information the way one reads an encyclopedia, but some types of fiction require to be read more
figuratively than others.
It is helpful to think of fiction in terms of a spectrum which ranges from “realism” – to
“romance.”
• “Realism” = fiction which depicts the world as it is to some extent, i.e., describes
an actual time and place with some degree of verisimilitude. Most importantly,
characters in realistic fiction are “round” characters (see notes on Characterization
above). Realistic fiction can be read at least partly literally.
• Romance = fiction which depicts the world as it should be to some extent, i.e.,
describes a fictional, even fantastic, place. Most importantly, characters in
Romance are types (see notes on Characterization above). Romance must be read
at least partly figuratively (see notes on Imagery and Figurative Language above).
Works Cited
Beckson, Karl and Arthur Ganz. Literary Terms: A Dictionary. 3rd ed. New York: Noonday
Press, 1989.
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